Return-Path: <nifl-4eff@literacy.nifl.gov> Received: from literacy (localhost [127.0.0.1]) by literacy.nifl.gov (8.10.2/8.10.2) with SMTP id iBFKffU08169; Wed, 15 Dec 2004 15:41:42 -0500 (EST) Date: Wed, 15 Dec 2004 15:41:42 -0500 (EST) Message-Id: <128.522766d6.2ef1fa4d@aol.com> Errors-To: listowner@literacy.nifl.gov Reply-To: nifl-4eff@literacy.nifl.gov Originator: nifl-4eff@literacy.nifl.gov Sender: nifl-4eff@literacy.nifl.gov Precedence: bulk From: MWPotts2001@aol.com To: Multiple recipients of list <nifl-4eff@literacy.nifl.gov> Subject: [NIFL-4EFF:2902] Research note (long) Sticht X-Listprocessor-Version: 6.0c -- ListProcessor by Anastasios Kotsikonas Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit X-Mailer: 9.0 for Windows sub 5033 Content-Type: text/plain; charset="UTF-8" Status: O Content-Length: 14617 Lines: 301 Research Note December 15, 2004 Embedding Basic Skills Following Functional Context Education (FCE) Principles and Practices: Three Online Resources Tom Sticht International Consultant in Adult Education According to the National Institute for Adult and Continuing Education (NIACE) in the United Kingdom, "Embedding or integrating literacy, language and numeracy in another subject or learning programme is increasingly talked about. This approach is seen as a way of attracting more and different learners to develop their skills. It is perceived as a purposeful and relevant approach, which builds on interest, motivation and wider goals."( see conference announcement online at http://www.niace.org.uk/Conferences/ELLN05.htm) Research on "embedding or integrating" basic skills into content subject matter of relevance to adult learner’s interests and goals was introduced as Functional Context Education (FCE) by Sticht in workshops in the United Kingdom in 1992 at the invitation and sponsorship of the Basic Skills Agency (then known as the Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit-ALBSU). Earlier, in the late 1980s, interest in FCE was foundational to the initiation of the National Workplace Literacy Program of the U. S. Department of Education. Now, as indicated above, it is showing up in adult education in the UK, and, additionally, new interest is being shown in the US in community colleges and high schools. The concepts of Functional Context Education, developed within the field of adult literacy education, are being more widely disseminated on the internet. Three online resources provide a wide range of resources for adult educators and others and include information about Functional Context Education theory and principles for embedding or integrating basic skills with content subject matter. 1. Encyclopedia of Psychology The Encyclopedia of Psychology facilitates browsing in psychology. There are two paths for this purpose, one providing original information generated by respected researchers and practitioners in various fields of psychology and the other providing a hierarchical database of links to web sites providing information about scientific psychology. The site aims to create a set of links that represent the best available sites organized in a manner that furthers the understanding of Psychology as a science. An entry in the Encyclopedia of Psychology about FCE can be found at http://www.psychology.org/links/Environment_Behavior_Relationships/Education/ It includes an Overview of FCE stating (abridged here): The functional context approach to learning stresses the importance of making learning relevant to the experience of learners and their work context. The learning of new information is facilitated by making it possible for the learner to relate it to knowledge already possessed and transform old knowledge into new knowledge. By using materials that the learner will use after training, transfer of learning from the classroom to the "real world" will be enhanced. The model of the cognitive system underlying this approach emphasizes the interaction of three components: (1) a knowledge base (i.e., long term memory) of what the individual knows, (2) processing skills including language, problem-solving, and learning strategies, and (3) information displays that present information. The performance of a task requires knowledge about what one is reading or writing, processing skills for comprehension and communication, and displays of information to be processed. The functional context approach also proposes new assessment methods. Instead of using grade level scores, tests should measure content knowledge gained and distinguish between functional learning and academic learning. For example, an assessment of reading should measure both reading-to-do (e.g., looking up information in a manual) and reading-to-learn (e.g., information needed for future decisions). Functional context theory shares a similar emphasis with Situated Learning theory which also stresses the importance of context during learning. Scope/Application: The functional context approach was developed specifically for adult technical and literacy training (reading/writing/mathematics) in military programs, but it has implications for learning of basic skills in general (e.g., Sticht, 1976) and reading in particular (Sticht, 1975). Sticht's functional context framework has been the basis for major workplace training and literacy programs sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor and Department of Education. References: Carnevale, A., Gainer, L. & Meltzer, A. (1990). Workplace Basics: The Essential Skills Employers Want. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Sticht, T.G. (1975). Applications of the audread model to reading evaluation and instruction. In L. Resnick & P. Weaver (Eds.), Theory and Practice of Early Reading, Volume 1. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Sticht, T.G. (1976). Comprehending reading at work. In M. Just & P. Carpenter (eds.), Cognitive Processes in Comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Sticht, T. (1988). Adult literacy education. Review of Research in Education, Volume 15. Washington, DC: American Education Research Association. Sticht, T., et al. (1987). Cast-off Youth: Policy and Training Methods from the Military Experience. New York: Praeger. For a more complete list of Sticht’s publications, see http://www.nald.ca/fulltext/sticht/jan02/11.htm 2. Encyclopedia of Educational Technology The Encyclopedia of Educational Technology (EET) is a collection of short multimedia articles on a variety of topics related to the fields of instructional design and education and training. The primary audiences for the EET are students and novice to intermediate practitioners in these fields, who need a brief overview as a starting point to further research on specific topics. Authors are graduate students, professors, and others who contribute voluntarily. Articles are short and use multimedia to enrich learning rather than merely decorate the pages. An entry in the Encyclopedia of Educational Technology about FCE is at http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/functionalce/index.htm It includes an introduction to FCE stating (abridged here): Functional Context Education LITERACY and other basic skills are effectively integrated with content learning through the Functional Context approach to education. This provides a valuable framework for the development of effective instructional materials for many adult learners. Overview The principles behind Functional Context Education (FCE) emerged during World War II as a result of training programs designed to prepare marginally literate recruits in the most efficient manner possible. Over time, the theory underlying this practice has more fully developed out of the field of cognitive science. The research and writings of Thomas G. Sticht have had a significant impact on how this theoretical basis has been implemented into more recent efforts in adult literacy instruction. General notions in education have traditionally held that literacy is a skill one must learn in one setting, then apply in others. The primary focus of FCE has been to promote improvement in literacy, as well as other basic skills, within instructional contexts that are highly relevant and useful to the learner. This allows for teaching methods that are optimal for adult learners; most adults are not motivated to learn if the content of instruction is not meaningful. FCE differs from traditional adult education philosophies and practices in that it grew out of and concepts of human information processing. Research in this field has shown that people acquire new knowledge and skills by building upon their own existing knowledge base. Through FCE, these findings have led to literacy programs that hold a strong job-related focus and strive to improve transfer of learning from literacy programs to job training. Most adult learners are highly unlikely to invest time in educational endeavors unless beneficial outcomes are very apparent. This factor is coupled with the reality that social stigmas are commonly associated with 'remedial' literacy programs. FCE provides opportunities for adults to improve reading and other skills within contexts that are conducive to their career and social goals. 3. National Adult Literacy Database in Canada The Functional Context Education (FCE) Workshop Resource Notebook is now available for free pdf downloading from the National Adult Literacy Database (NALD) in Canada at http://www.nald.ca/fulltext/context/cover.htm (or www.nald.ca under Full Text Documents searched by S for Sticht.) The notebook presents theory of cognition and literacy, and it provides evidence for the effectiveness of FCE and examples of FCE type programs. What is Functional Context Education (FCE)? Functional Context Education is an approach to education that is based upon a cognitive science theory of cognitive development, learning, and instruction. The theoretical framework and the principles for applying this framework to the task of instructional development are discussed in this notebook. Literacy is given special attention in FCE because of its importance to all schooling and instruction in our information age. A general thesis is that the idea that literacy is something one must "get" in one program, which is then "applied" in another is misleading. Rather, it is argued that literacy is developed while it is being applied. This means that for the large numbers of youth and adults who read between the fifth and ninth grade levels, literacy and content skills education can be integrated. Therefore there is no need for special "remedial" literacy programs to get students to "prerequisite" levels of literacy before they are permitted to study the "real thing." In overview, education based on functional context theory includes the following conceptual framework: oSociety and culture provide the most important resources for human cognitive development. These resources include symbols and symbol systems, such as the natural language and conceptual (in contrast to perceptual) knowledge, which constitute the primary means for the transmission of cognitive abilities. oThe learner possesses a "human cognitive system" with an internal knowledge base "inside the head" and access to an external knowledge base in the world "outside the head." The learner has a working, or short term memory in which processing skills such as language are used to move information in and out of both the internal and external knowledge bases. oLearning is information processing whereby the learner actively seeks out information used in constructing a meaningful interpretation of the world and a knowledge base comprised of these interpretations. oA developmental perspective of literacy emphasizing the development of oral language from earlier prelinguistic knowledge and literacy as the amalgam of prelinguistic, linguistic and graphic symbolic knowledge. oThe importance of context in learning new information and in transferring information already learned to new and different problems and situations. The application of this theoretical framework to the instructional development process suggests creating courses that facilitate learning on entry into the course, learning throughout the course, and transfer into the contexts for which the learning is meant to apply. To accomplish these objectives, courses should be developed that: oExplain what the students are to learn and why in such a way that they can always understand both the immediate and long term usefulness of the course content (facilitates entry into the course; motivates learning). oConsider the old knowledge that students bring with them to the course, and build new knowledge on the basis of this old knowledge (facilitates entry learning) oSequence each new lesson so that it builds on prior knowledge gained in the previous lessons (facilitates in-course learning). oIntegrate instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, and problem solving into academic or technical training programs as the content of the course poses requirements for information processing using these skills that many potential students may not possess; avoid decontextualized basic skills "remedial" programs (facilitates in-course learning; motivates basic skills learning; reduces instruction time; develops "learning to learn" ability ). oDerive objectives from careful analysis of the explicit and tacit knowledge and skill needed in the home, community, academic, technical training, or employment context for which the learner is preparing (facilitates transfer). oUse, to the extent possible, learning contexts, tasks, materials, and procedures taken from the future situation in which the learner will be functioning (facilitates transfer). Why is FCE important for youth and adult education? Unlike children, who tend to do things to please their parents or teachers, youth and adults will usually want to understand the functional utility of investing time and mental energy in learning something. With respect to out-of-school youth and adults then, FCE focuses on improving (1) Participation in adult education programs by making explicit the relationship between what students want to learn, what is being taught and its application in the contexts that the person will be functioning in after the educational program, this promotes increased motivation; (2) Achievement in learning and transfer by ensuring that instruction relates to the learner's prior knowledge in such a way that the learner can function within the learning situation and improving transfer by deriving instructional contents as much as possible from the future contexts in which the person will apply the learning, and (3) Prevention of learning problems in future generations by designing youth and adult programs that maximize the intergenerational transfer of the adults' new skills and attitudes about education to their children. The FCE notebook presents 112 pages of elaboration upon the principles summarized above and illustrates the application of these programs in case studies of programs for adults, including family literacy programs with a focus upon women’s education that can provide an intergenerational transfer of language and literacy skills to their children. Thomas G. Sticht International Consultant in Adult Education 2062 Valley View Blvd. El Cajon, CA 92010-2059 Tel/fax: (619) 444-9133 Email: tsticht@aznet.net
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